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With U.S. math proficiency scores declining—only 36% of fourth-grade students were proficient in mathematics in 2022 (NCES, 2022)—the need for innovative and effective interventions is more urgent than ever. Achievement gaps between low- and high-poverty students and racial/ethnic disparities further highlight the importance of targeted instructional strategies (Kuhfeld et al., 2022; Moscoviz & Evans, 2022). The theoretical framework guiding this investigation underscores the critical role of formative assessments in improving student outcomes and reducing math anxiety.
One way to directly address these challenges is by embedding strategic thinking into math instruction, a method known to reduce both student and teacher anxiety while improving math performance (Passolunghi et al., 2020), which is a key feature of Classtime. Strategic thinking fosters problem-solving skills, an essential component of mathematical success as identified by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2009).
The use of technology to provide real-time, actionable data is also a core element of the Classtime platform. This data-driven adaptability enables teachers to offer personalized feedback to students, helping them improve their performance on specific skill sets and strategic thinking types (Martin et al., 2022). By incorporating tools that mirror state testing formats and empowering students through repeated opportunities to demonstrate mastery, Classtime also helps reduce math anxiety by offering a low-stakes environment for practicing high-stakes test content (Szczygieł & Pieronkiewicz, 2022). Classtime not only addresses math anxiety, it also provides students with the strategies to approach new problems, and only this combination of approaches leads to actual improved student outcomes in terms of both anxiety and test performance (Passolunghi et al., 2020).
Formative assessment theory supports this approach, as it emphasizes continuous feedback and timely intervention to promote student learning (Fisher & Fray, 2014). Teachers using Classtime can quickly identify areas where students struggle, using the platform’s dashboard to adjust instruction and focus on strategic gaps. This kind of adaptive, formative assessment has been shown to significantly improve student engagement and learning outcomes (Beesley et al., 2018; Rakoczy et al., 2019).
The layering of math content in Classtime—from basic concepts to complex problem-solving skills—ensures that students progressively build their strategic thinking abilities. By regularly interacting with multiple strategic thinking types, students improve not just in math proficiency but also in their ability to think critically and adapt to different problem formats (Graham et al., 2010). This also allows for spaced practice across time, a highly effective practice for increasing retention (Carpenter et al., 2022; Latimer et al., 2021), which may help students feel more comfortable drawing from and implementing these strategies in new contexts.
Incorporating this adaptive technology into everyday math instruction helps teachers reduce instructional planning time while improving their confidence and competence in teaching math (Harrison et al., 2023).
The use of cooperative challenges further fosters a positive learning environment, promoting peer-to-peer engagement and reinforcing math concepts in a collaborative setting (Morschheuser et al., 2017).
By leveraging real-time data and focusing on strategic thinking, Classtime represents a robust educational technology solution that addresses both immediate academic performance and long-term growth in mathematical reasoning and self-efficacy.
This investigation of Classtime as a test case of tech-enhanced formative assessment tools for math employs a mixed-methods design, analyzing data from 667 students in Grades 3–6 from a medium-sized school district in Southern California during the 2022–2023 school year. Study participants were enrolled in schools that used Classtime throughout the year as a formative assessment tool. Students’ performance was evaluated based on their CAASPP (California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress) scores and iReady assessment data, both measured at the beginning and end of the school year. Teacher surveys were also administered to gather qualitative data about the use of Classtime and its impact on teaching practices, particularly regarding strategic thinking and math anxiety.
Statistical methods, including repeated measures ANOVA and ANCOVA, were employed to examine the relationship between Classtime usage and improvements in math scores, controlling for baseline performance with demographic characteristics included as covariates. The analysis also focused on evaluating the differential effects of program usage on student outcomes, classifying students into high-, medium-, and low-usage groups based on the number of Classtime sessions completed. This allowed for a comparison of math gains across varying levels of exposure to the platform.
Additionally, a cohort comparison was conducted, examining how students who used Classtime performed compared to a previous cohort of students in the same school who did not use the platform. Follow-up studies are planned for the 2024–2025 school year to further explore the long-term impacts of Classtime on both math proficiency and student attitudes toward state testing.
The analysis revealed significantly more growth in student math performance for those using Classtime during the 2022–2023 school year, particularly in classrooms where the platform was utilized most frequently. Students in the high-usage group (with 12 or more total Classtime sessions) made notable gains on their CAASPP and iReady assessments compared to those in both the moderate-usage group (between 6 and 12 sessions) and the low-usage group (with fewer than six sessions), with a large effect size of d = 0.87 for the high-usage versus low-usage group comparison.
Key Findings:
Proficiency Gains: On average, third-grade students in the high-usage group improved their iReady scores by 40.80 points, compared to just 27.82 points in the low-usage group, representing nearly 50% more growth. Fourth- to sixth-graders also saw a significant improvement in CAASPP scores, with students in the high-usage group making gains nearly double that of their peers in the low-usage group. In addition, third and fourth graders using Classtime outperformed comparison students in non-Classtime schools, showing more growth from spring 2022 to spring 2023 and more growth than the previous cohorts of third and fourth-grade students within their school.
Educators consistently praised Classtime for its ability to help them identify specific areas where students were struggling. One teacher shared, "This was a great and easy way to determine which students were struggling with content and which kids were struggling with strategic thinking types. Great way to determine small groups." Another teacher noted that Classtime helped them "reinforce the use of strategic thinking and the type of SBAC questions. Students were able to effectively use claims-type questions and practice."
Effect Size: The overall effect size for fourth- to sixth-grade students in the high-usage group was calculated to be 0.99 compared to that of comparison students, indicating a large and meaningful impact on student math achievement. The effects were particularly notable in Grades 3 and 4 where strategic thinking practice was more deeply integrated into daily instruction, showing significantly larger gains compared to comparison students at different schools as well as the previous cohorts of students within the same school. These gains are noteworthy, given the challenges posed by COVID-related learning gaps.
Consistent Growth Across Grades: In addition to the gains seen in third and fourth graders, fifth and sixth-grade students also showed meaningful growth. While the gains were more modest in these higher grades, students still demonstrated improvement over their peers in the comparison group who did not use Classtime. This consistency across grades highlights the platform's adaptability and its ability to support students at varying levels of math proficiency.
Looking ahead, continued usage of Classtime is expected to yield even greater gains, particularly as teachers become more adept at using the platform to provide real-time feedback and target specific gaps in student understanding. The study is being replicated with a larger group of treatment schools and control schools in the same school district in 2024-2025 with the aim to have mid-year results to compare and discuss in the session.
This presentation is particularly relevant to educators, policymakers, and researchers focusing on the intersection of technology and education. It highlights the potential of tech-enhanced formative assessment tools like Classtime to address key challenges in elementary math education, especially in schools with high proportions of socioeconomically disadvantaged students.
Key Contributions:
Closing Achievement Gaps: The findings highlight the effectiveness of tech-enhanced formative assessment tools such as Classtime in closing achievement gaps, especially among underperforming subgroups. Hispanic/Latino students, who represent over 90% of the student population in this study, showed significant improvements in math proficiency through the consistent use of Classtime. This aligns with broader educational goals of promoting equity through targeted interventions.
Strategic Thinking and Math Anxiety: The study adds to the growing body of research demonstrating that strategic thinking approaches can alleviate math anxiety (Passolunghi et al., 2020). The findings of the current work underscore the importance of using tools that not only result in score improvements, but also help students (and teachers) feel more confident and less anxious about their math skills. By incorporating elements of strategic thinking into routine assessments, Classtime enables students to become more comfortable with complex problem-solving tasks, thus reducing anxiety and building confidence. Teachers confirmed that students became more engaged and less intimidated by state test formats over time.
Technology-Driven Instructional Support: The program’s teacher-facing dashboard, which provides real-time actionable data, ensures that formative assessment is not just a test of knowledge, but a guide for instruction. This data-driven approach to math instruction, supported by AI-based grading, streamlines the teaching process and allows educators to focus more on student learning rather than grading.
This study is valuable to conference audiences because it highlights the role of tech-enhanced formative assessments in improving math proficiency, particularly for students who struggle with mathematical reasoning and strategic thinking. With rising concerns about declining math proficiency rates and widening achievement gaps (NCES, 2022; Kuhfeld et al., 2022), Classtime provides a timely and scalable solution that integrates seamlessly into classroom instruction.
The findings of this study have important implications for educators, policymakers, and school leaders interested in leveraging digital tools to enhance math instruction. By demonstrating that increased usage of Classtime correlates with measurable improvements in math scores, particularly on state tests such as the CAASPP, the research underscores the effectiveness of formative, data-driven instructional strategies. Classtime allows teachers to provide targeted support and address specific gaps in strategic thinking and problem-solving skills, which are critical for student success in math (Fisher & Fray, 2014; Martin et al., 2022).
Moreover, this research contributes to broader discussions about educational equity, showing that Classtime is particularly beneficial for students from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds. The platform's real-time data dashboard helps teachers quickly identify struggling students and implement timely interventions, promoting more equitable learning outcomes across diverse student populations (Rakoczy et al., 2019). Additionally, Classtime supports educators by reducing their math teaching anxiety, improving their instructional confidence, and enhancing the overall classroom climate, all of which have been shown to positively impact student achievement (Harrison et al., 2023; Schaefer et al., 2021).
By focusing on adaptive, mastery-based learning and the integration of strategic thinking into math instruction, Classtime offers a valuable model for using educational technology to improve academic outcomes while supporting students' long-term development in math and critical thinking. The study’s findings are particularly relevant for schools aiming to close achievement gaps and foster higher engagement with math in the post-pandemic educational landscape.
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Boström, E., & Palm, T. (2023). The effect of a formative assessment practice on student achievement in mathematics. Frontiers in Education, 8, 1101192. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1101192
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